Political modernity set off, through liberalism and a modern form of republicanism, programmatically and historically, with a rather oligarchical and abstract perspective. Accordingly, most citizens – if they were citizens at all – did not participate, at least fully, in the political system and had only civil rights – limited in particular for women but also for specific groups of the population, foremostly slaves. Abstractness hid however these concrete issues, besetting workers and the popular classes in general, as well as women, also in their plebeian political being. Abstractness implied also the personalization and personification of politics should be strictly limited.

Through social and political struggles concreteness penetrated however the structure of the state, democratizing the political system of liberal republicanism, broadening political rights, and introducing social policies and rights, tending often to universalization. Highly oligarchical mass organizations – parties, unions, associations, churches – were crucial for this expansive moment. This movement has been reversed since the 1970s, implying a moment of retraction of republican liberalism towards a sort of de-democratized advanced oligarchical political system, despite the formal trappings of democracy, and the restriction of social policies, concentrated on the poor rather them aiming at the citizen. Concreteness has not disappeared, though, with society cut out in different groups and the personalization and personification of politics (so-called “populism”). This movement is internal rather than inimical to liberalism.

At the same time, the “real socialist” (authoritarian collectivism) failed and returned to capitalism, although keeping the party-state form. It does not appear any longer as an alternative at all. The question that remains is whether republican liberalism can resume its expansive movement or whether, as authoritarian collectivism, it is exhausted in its creative capacities and historical dynamics and in terms of propelling social forces.